Final answer:
Chiefdoms and early states sustained themselves through intensive agriculture, control over resources, and trade. Chiefs' power and status were reinforced by the possession of lands, regulation of surplus, and accumulation of valuable goods. These societies often evolved into more centralized states with complex political structures and hierarchies.
Step-by-step explanation:
Chiefdoms and early states crafted their livelihoods through a diverse array of strategies including intensive agriculture, trade, and the control of economic resources. Central to the power of a chief in these societies was the control over land, agricultural output, and commerce. Chiefdoms were often organized through a hierarchy of chiefs and were sometimes associated with militarism and religious ideologies. Art and luxury goods played significant roles in establishing a chief's status and power. Techniques such as irrigation, terracing, and the creation of chinampas (agricultural plots) facilitated intensive cultivation, which in turn supported the dense populations and allowed for specialization of labor. Chiefs controlled this agricultural surplus and also regulated both local and regional trade, thus reinforcing their authority and ability to expand their territories. Chiefdoms, such as those in Polynesia, Africa, and early state societies like Ghana, showcased a centralization of power as they shifted from independent entities to more organized, interconnected structures with complex hierarchies and governmental systems. As these societies continued to grow in complexity, they sometimes transformed into more established states, with even greater centralized control as seen in the empire of Ghana during the early eleventh century CE. Anthropological and archaeological research reveals the common elements of economic, political, religious, and military power concentrated in the role of the chief, which is a defining feature of these chiefdoms across various cultures and historical contexts.