Final answer:
According to social exchange theory, altruistic behavior is guided by calculations of costs and benefits, suggesting that individuals consider personal gain even in seemingly selfless actions.
Step-by-step explanation:
According to social exchange theory, altruistic behavior is guided by d. calculations of costs and benefits. Social exchange theory suggests that the actions of individuals are motivated by the return these actions are expected to bring and typically reflect an individual's self-interest. Altruism, on the other hand, involves helping others with no expectation of personal gain, which counters the notion of social exchange. However, social exchange theory posits that even seemingly altruistic acts are undertaken because the individual perceives the benefits of a positive self-concept or social approval to outweigh the costs of the action.