Final answer:
Higher-order conditioning is a process by which a new neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an already established conditioned stimulus, eventually eliciting the same conditioned response on its own. This process is part of classical conditioning, which associates two stimuli to result in a learned behavior, and can sometimes occur with a single pairing rather than multiple exposures.
Step-by-step explanation:
Higher-order conditioning is a concept in psychology whereby an established conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, which is referred to as the second-order stimulus. Through this pairing, the new stimulus eventually is able to elicit the same conditioned response, even without the initial conditioned stimulus being present. This occurs within the framework of classical conditioning, a learning process identified by Ivan Pavlov through which organisms learn to associate two stimuli that occur together, leading to a change in behavior.
For instance, if a dog has been trained to salivate at the sound of a bell (first-order conditioning), later on, a light might be paired with the bell. After several pairings of the light with the bell, the light alone could elicit salivation in the dog. The dog has now undergone higher-order conditioning. While classical conditioning might require several pairings, it has been discovered that conditioning can happen in some cases with just a single exposure.
It's interesting to note that, while operant conditioning also discusses how behaviors are learned through association, it mainly emphasizes the role of reinforcement and punishment after the behavior occurs, rather than the mere association of stimuli. B.F. Skinner's work on operant conditioning expanded on how positive or negative reinforcement can shape behavior.
These conditioning phenomena are not just academic constructs but are observed in everyday learning, both in humans and animals, and are fundamental to behavioral psychology, therapy, and behavior modification practices.