Final answer:
The religion most closely associated with the social class system described is Hinduism, which is historically intertwined with the caste system in India, emphasizing social stratification based on past life actions.
Step-by-step explanation:
The religion most closely associated with the social class system described in the diagram, and which reflects Hindu religious beliefs, is Hinduism. Hinduism has historically been intertwined with the caste system, particularly in India, where the caste division is a significant aspect of social organization. This system is characterized by its rigid structure and lack of social mobility, with individuals' social status being determined by their birth into a particular caste. This belief in social stratification is informed by the idea of karma and dharma which suggest that a person's actions in past lives determine their position in the current life, and by fulfilling their caste duties, they can attain better circumstances in future reincarnations. Within this framework, the ultimate goal is moksha, or release from the cycle of rebirth.