Answer:
2)
a base-pair substitution replaces one nucleotide base with another, while a base-pair insertion adds extra nucleotides into the DNA sequence. Both types of mutations can have varying effects on the resulting protein or genetic function, but base-pair insertions often have a more dramatic impact due to the frameshift they cause.
Silent Mutation, Missense Mutation, Nonsense Mutation
3)
One example of a mutation that has a negative impact on an organism is the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene mutation, which causes the genetic disorder known as cystic fibrosis (CF).
4)
One example of a mutation that can have a positive impact on an organism is the sickle cell mutation, which is associated with sickle cell anaemia—a genetic disorder primarily affecting red blood cells.
Sickle cell anaemia is caused by a point mutation in the gene that codes for the beta-globin protein, a component of haemoglobin—the protein responsible for carrying oxygen in red blood cells. The mutation results in the substitution of a single nucleotide base in the DNA sequence, leading to the production of abnormal haemoglobin molecules.
While sickle cell anaemia is a serious and sometimes life-threatening condition, the mutation itself can confer a positive impact when present in a heterozygous state, meaning an individual has one normal copy of the gene and one mutated copy. This condition is known as sickle cell trait and offers some level of protection against malaria.
5)
One example of a mutation that might have no noticeable effect on an organism is a silent mutation. Silent mutations occur when a change in the DNA sequence of a gene does not result in any change in the corresponding amino acid sequence of the protein it codes for.
Silent mutations typically involve base-pair substitutions in the DNA sequence, where one nucleotide is replaced with another. However, due to the redundancy of the genetic code, multiple codons can code for the same amino acid. As a result, certain substitutions in the DNA sequence may not alter the amino acid sequence or the resulting protein's structure or function.
6)
Somatic Mutations
Germline Mutations
Genetic Segregation
Natural Selection
7)
Mutagens are agents or substances that can induce or increase the frequency of mutations in the DNA or genetic material of living organisms. They can be physical, chemical, or biological in nature. Mutagens have the potential to alter the DNA sequence, resulting in genetic mutations that can have various effects on an organism's traits and characteristics.
How do these cause mutations?
dna damage
DNA Replication Errors
Mutagenic Bypass
DNA Repair Interference
examples of mutagens
-Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are found in tobacco smoke, exhaust fumes, and charred food.
-Nitrous acid, which can be formed in certain food preservation processes.
-Benzene, an industrial chemical and component of gasoline.
-Formaldehyde, a chemical used in building materials and household products.
-Asbestos, a mineral fibre used in construction materials.
-Ionizing radiation, such as X-rays, gamma rays, and nuclear radiation.
-Ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun or tanning beds.
-Radioactive substances, including radon gas.
-Certain pollutants, such as heavy metals (e.g., lead, cadmium) and air pollutants.
-Pesticides and herbicides used in agriculture.
-Industrial chemicals and solvents.
-Some viruses, such as human papillomavirus (HPV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV), can integrate into the host genome and cause mutations.
-Transposons, or "jumping genes," can move within the genome and disrupt gene sequences.
8)
When body cells exhibit uncontrolled cell growth, it can lead to the development of a tumour or cancer.
9)
Invasion and Destruction of Healthy Tissues
Compression and Displacement
Angiogenesis and Nutrient Competition
Metastasis
Immune System Interactions
Paraneoplastic Syndromes
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