Final answer:
Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart introduced the theory of levels of processing in 1972. Their work, further developed with Endel Tulving in 1975, emphasizes that deep, semantic processing of information leads to better memory retention than shallow, sensory-level processing.
Step-by-step explanation:
The theory of levels of processing was developed by psychologists Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart. The seminal paper, titled 'Levels of processing: A framework for memory research,' was published in 1972 in the Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior.
This framework suggests that memory recall of stimuli is not based on the sensory features, but rather the depth of mental processing, which ranges from shallow to deep levels.
Following this, Craik and Endel Tulving further explored this concept and published their influential work in 1975 in the Journal of Experimental Psychology, where they experimented with the retention of words processed at different depths.
They found that semantic processing, which involves thinking about the meaning of the words, tends to lead to better retention compared to shallow levels like visual or acoustic processing.
Their research greatly contributed to the understanding of how memory functions and showed that the depth of processing affects how well information is remembered.
According to the levels of processing theory, top-down processing allows one to use previous experiences and expectations in recognizing stimuli, which is a form of semantic encoding and adds to the depth of processing.
This contrasts with theories that emphasize repetition and maintenance rehearsal as the primary methods for memory retention.