Final answer:
The concept of altruism as a reduction of one's own fitness to increase another's fitness is true, but the underlying motives can be complex and often involve indirect genetic benefits to the altruistic individual. The correct option is vb.
Step-by-step explanation:
The statement that altruism occurs when an individual reduces his or her own direct fitness and increases the fitness of another individual is true.
Altruistic behaviors are observed throughout the animal kingdom and can involve actions that, on the surface, seem to lower the fitness of the individual performing them in favor of another's reproductive success.
However, when looking at these behaviors more closely through the lens of evolutionary biology, the picture becomes more complex.
For example, social insects like worker bees are sterile and cannot reproduce, but they take care of the queen who shares a majority of their genes, and by ensuring her reproductive success, they indirectly pass on their genetic material.
Similarly, seemingly altruistic acts between less related individuals can also be explained by theories like kin selection and inclusive fitness, which suggest that the fitness of an individual is related not only to personal reproduction success but also to the success of relatives sharing common genes.
Evolutionary game theory modifies the classical game theory in mathematics to suggest that many acts of altruism may have 'selfish' components as they ultimately contribute to the passing on of one's genes.
This extends to the concept of 'pure' altruism, a term debated among researchers, as some argue that helping behaviors are always influenced by some form of benefit, even if it's not immediately apparent. The correct option is b.