Final answer:
The correct answer is d. all of the above. Trauma to the urethral mucosa during catheter insertion, contamination of equipment during insertion, and contaminated hands of personnel can all contribute to UTIs in catheterized patients.
Step-by-step explanation:
The correct answer is d. all of the above. Trauma to the urethral mucosa during catheter insertion, contamination of equipment during insertion, and contaminated hands of personnel can all contribute to UTIs in catheterized patients. These factors can introduce bacteria to the urinary tract, increasing the risk of infection.