Final answer:
b) Instrumental aggression is goal-oriented, while hostile aggression is emotionally driven. Hostile aggression occurs more frequently. Instrumental aggression is goal-oriented and not necessarily intended to cause pain, while hostile aggression is driven by anger and aims to cause pain. Preschool-aged children display more instrumental aggression, which is related to goal achievement rather than the intent to harm others.
Step-by-step explanation:
Instrumental and hostile aggression are two forms of behavior intended to cause harm or pain, but they differ significantly in their underlying motivations. Instrumental aggression is goal-oriented, where the primary objective is not to cause harm but to achieve a certain outcome, and harm may be a by-product of achieving this goal. Examples include a football player tackling another to win the game or a businessperson undercutting competitors to secure a deal. Contrastingly, hostile aggression is motivated by feelings of anger or hostility with the intention to cause pain or injury, such as an individual attacking someone who insulted them.
In the context of preschool-aged children, research suggests that they exhibit more instrumental aggression as it relates to achieving a goal, like securing a toy or gaining a playmate's attention, rather than intending to cause pain to others. However, as they grow older and social cognition develops, children begin to show more complex forms of aggression that can be both instrumental and hostile.