Final answer:
Children's gender roles are learned through socialization with heavy influence from family, education, peer groups, and mass media, reinforcing gender stereotypes. Eisenberg et al. provided a critique of gender schema theory by revealing that young children's preferences for gender-specific toys might exist independently of external influences such as socialization. The correct answer is option D.
Step-by-step explanation:
Children learn gender roles at a young age through socialization, where they receive societal values, beliefs, and attitudes. These roles are reinforced by the four major agents of socialization: family, education, peer groups, and mass media. The influence of gender stereotypes can shape the play and toy preferences of children, often pushing them towards toys that are considered gender-appropriate. However, Eisenberg et al. criticized gender schema theory by finding that 3-4-year-olds justified their gender-specific toy choices without the influence of peer pressure, parental guidance, societal pressure, or gender schemas.
For instance, boys are given toys like trucks, which promote motor skills and solitary play, while girls receive dolls to encourage nurturing and social play. Feedback from parents, often in the form of praise for gender normative behavior, usually guides these choices. Nevertheless, the research by Eisenberg et al. challenges the notion that these choices are solely based on gender schemas, suggesting that young children may have intrinsic preferences that do not rely on external socialization pressures.