Final answer:
Probability sampling involves selecting members with a known and equal chance of being chosen, while non-probability sampling uses subjective criteria for selection. Exploratory research aims to gain insights into a topic, while causal research aims to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
Step-by-step explanation:
A - Probability and non-probability sampling:
Probability sampling: It is a sampling technique in which each member of the population has a known and equal chance of being selected to be part of the sample. It allows for the calculation of probabilities and generalization of the results to the entire population. Examples of probability sampling methods include simple random sampling, stratified sampling, and cluster sampling.
Non-probability sampling: It is a sampling technique in which the selection of members from the population is based on subjective criteria and may not represent the entire population. It does not allow for the calculation of probabilities and generalization of the results to the entire population. Examples of non-probability sampling methods include convenience sampling, purposive sampling, and snowball sampling.
B - Exploratory research and causal research:
Exploratory research: It is a type of research conducted when there is limited or no existing knowledge on the topic. It aims to explore and gain insights into the problem or phenomenon under study. It is often qualitative in nature and helps in generating hypotheses or ideas for further research.
Causal research: It is a type of research conducted to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables. It involves manipulating one variable (independent variable) and observing the effect on another variable (dependent variable). It often uses experimental designs and statistical analysis to determine the causal relationship.