Final answer:
When an increase in offending occurs across a collective following the punishment of a member, defiance theory refers to this as specific defiance (option d).
Step-by-step explanation:
If there is a net increase in the prevalence of offending across a collective based upon the reaction of the collective to the punishment of one of its members, the occurrence is described by defiance theory as specific defiance. This refers to a situation where the community reacts negatively to the punishment of an individual, which then leads to an increase rather than a decrease in offending behavior.
Important concepts related to this scenario include the collective conscience as defined by Durkheim, factors contributing to the development of justice systems, the differential association theory, and how collective behavior can be mobilized in response to external events or perceived injustices.