Final answer:
In the twelfth century, monarchs were seen as absolute rulers with divine right, but the Magna Carta established that even kings were subject to the law.
Step-by-step explanation:
At the close of the twelfth century, Western Europeans saw their monarchs not as rulers of a people, but rather as absolute monarchs who claimed a divine right to rule. These monarchs were considered to be the sole source of authority in their lands, formulating their own laws, administering justice, and imposing taxes without the need to confer with nobles or other bodies. The monarch's power was viewed as being granted by God, not through the consent of the governed or the church.
In contrast to this view of absolute monarchy, the principle implied in the Magna Carta (1215) was that all people, including the king, were subject to the law. This was a step towards the concept of constitutionalism, where even the monarch's power had limits imposed by law. For the exercise question included in the passage, the correct answer would be d. that all people, even the king, were subject to the law.