Final answer:
Ryan has learned to take turns and listen on the playground through observational learning, which is learning by watching and imitating others. This type of learning involves complex cognitive processes and does not necessarily require external reinforcement, setting it apart from classical and operant conditioning. Option d) is correct.
Step-by-step explanation:
Ryan, an elementary school child on the playground during recess, has learned to take turns and listen, thus having an equal exchange of turn-taking. This behavior is an example of d) Observational learning.
Observational learning is a process by which individuals learn new behaviors or skills by watching and imitating others. This form of learning is different from classical conditioning, which associates two stimuli, and operant conditioning, which is based on the consequences of behavior. It extends the range of what can be learned beyond direct experience. In the context of the playground, observational learning may involve a child watching peers take turns and listening to each other, and then copying those behaviors.
Internally, observational learning involves more complex cognitive processes than simple imitation; it can result in lasting changes in behavior and does not necessarily require external reinforcement. This form of learning is critically influenced by models in the environment, such as parents, teachers, peers, and media figures.