Final answer:
The correct answer is option d) Latent learning.
Step-by-step explanation:
According to Tolman's idea of cognitive maps, organisms seem to learn the spatial layout of their environment by latent learning, even if they are not reinforced for learning particular paths. In his experiments with rats, Tolman placed hungry rats in a maze with no reward for finding their way through it.
As the unreinforced rats explored the maze, they developed a cognitive map: a mental picture of the layout of the maze. After several sessions in the maze without reinforcement, food was placed in a goal box at the end of the maze, and the rats were able to find their way quickly, just like the comparison group that had been rewarded with food all along.