Final answer:
The desire to avoid failure is most closely related to the need for achievement, while self-efficacy relates to confidence in one's abilities. Cognitive dissonance arises from a need for consistency, and informational social influence occurs when answers are uncertain, and the group has expertise.
Step-by-step explanation:
The desire to avoid failure is referred to as fear of failure, and it is not one of the options provided in the multiple-choice question. However, the closest option would be a) Need for achievement, which, according to research by McClelland & Liberman (1949), includes the motivation to excel and the drive to succeed, suggesting a negative orientation towards failure. The term fear of failure is more specific and not covered by the given options.
Your level of confidence in your abilities is known as self-efficacy, and Albert Bandura's theory suggests that high self-efficacy leads to a greater willingness to take on challenges and persist despite setbacks. Cognitive dissonance relates to our need for consistency in our beliefs and actions, causing discomfort when there is a misalignment.
In terms of social influence, informational social influence will be more likely under conditions when d) both the answer is unclear and the group has expertise, as individuals will look to the group for guidance in ambiguous situations.