Final answer:
Monarchs centralized political power by accruing royal holdings, establishing strong bureaucracies, advocating the divine-right of kings, and later co-opting nationalism to strengthen their rule.
Step-by-step explanation:
Monarchs sought to centralize political power through several strategies, aiming to consolidate their control over their realms. In France, for example, King Philip II and subsequent monarchs increased royal holdings by confiscating land from nobles, managing it with salaried royal officials instead of hereditary vassals. This move toward a stronger central government meant that much of France fell under direct royal control, enhancing the king's resources for conflicts with vassals and the Church.
Similarly, Louis XIV of France epitomized the divine-right monarchy, centralizing authority around himself and minimizing the power of the nobility. This absolutist approach allowed monarchs to proclaim laws, administer justice, and impose taxes without needing to confer with others.
Additionally, the notion of nation-state emerged, through which some conservative monarchs in the 19th century co-opted nationalism to support their rule over unified territories, exemplified by the formation of Italy under conservative leadership.