Final answer:
During the 1400s, the rise of nation-states was a significant development in Europe, characterized by consolidating monarchies, burgeoning trade, and the germination of capitalist economic theories.
Step-by-step explanation:
During the 1400s, Europe began to see the rise of c) Nation-states. This period was characterized by the intensification of trade and the consolidation of power by emerging monarchies. Large-scale warfare among European powers over trade and internal consolidation efforts led to the formation of more centralized and powerful states. Intellectuals of the time, witnessing these developments, considered the implications on economic systems, paving the way for modern capitalism, which was later expounded upon by philosopher Adam Smith. Despite trade expansion and the agricultural revolution contributing to economic progression, Europe also challenges such as famine, disease, and social strife during this transformative era.