Final answer:
Personal recognition and the use of identification cards are the primary methods security guards use to identify individuals, but such identification requirements can lead to discrimination and disenfranchisement in different social processes.
Step-by-step explanation:
Personal recognition and the use of identification cards are D) the two principal ways by which security guards carrying out access control duties can identify individuals. This practice is a standard security measure to ensure that only authorized persons can enter certain areas. However, the requirement of identification for various social processes can pose ethical and legal challenges, potentially leading to discrimination. For instance, voter registration procedures that mandate state-sponsored photo identification might disenfranchise certain racial or ethnic groups, leading to accusations of racial discrimination. In the workplace, efforts to professionalize human resource functions and reduce bias are crucial as research shows that Asian applicants may face discrimination in hiring processes. Also, civil rights legislation aims to reduce the negative impacts of discrimination on stigmatized groups by making certain discriminatory behaviors a prosecutable offense.