Final answer:
Adults have used trees and their environments to maintain orientation using natural indicators such as lichens on trees, geographic landmarks like distinctive trees, and navigation tools like the cross-staff and the magnetic compass. Language and cultural practices, such as the use of cardinal directions by the Kuuk Thaayorre speakers, also play a role in navigation skills.
Step-by-step explanation:
Adults have used trees and their surrounding environment to maintain their orientation and navigate through various landscapes. For instance, Boy Scouts have been taught to deduce the north direction by observing on which side of a tree trunk lichens are more prevalent. Lichens typically thrive more on the shaded north side of trees due to less exposure to direct sunlight. Another navigation method involved using landmarks, such as a solitary great pine tree, mentioned in literature, which served as a guide for people.
In navigation history, tools like the cross-staff and later the backstaff, which measured the elevation angle of celestial bodies, were vital for sea navigation before more advanced technology like compasses was widely available. The magnetic compass became essential for determining directions due to the Earth's magnetic field aligning the needle north-south.
Additionally, cognitive research indicates that language and cultural practices also influence spatial navigation skills, as demonstrated by speakers of Kuuk Thaayorre, who constantly orient themselves using cardinal directions.