Final Answer:
After Muhammad's death, disputes were settled through d. Caliphs' arbitration. The caliphs, as successors to Muhammad, served as mediators and arbiters, resolving conflicts within the early Muslim community.
Thus option d is correct.
Step-by-step explanation:
Following the death of Muhammad, disputes were resolved through the arbitration of caliphs. The caliphs, as successors to Muhammad, held significant religious and political authority within the Islamic community. They acted as mediators and arbiters in settling conflicts among the early Muslim community members. Their role was pivotal in maintaining order, unity, and resolving disagreements, ensuring adherence to Islamic teachings and principles.
Caliphs played a crucial part in Islamic governance, exercising leadership and authority in both religious and administrative matters. Their arbitration helped prevent potential fragmentation and internal conflicts within the nascent Muslim community. Through their knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence and ethical guidance, the caliphs provided judgments and resolutions, ensuring justice and stability within the community. This practice of arbitration by the caliphs became an essential aspect of governance in the early Islamic era, ensuring the continuity and coherence of the Muslim society after the demise of Muhammad.
The caliphs' role in arbitration was a significant factor in shaping the early Islamic civilization. Their ability to resolve disputes through arbitration, based on Islamic principles and teachings, not only maintained social harmony but also contributed to the establishment and consolidation of Islamic governance and jurisprudence during that period.
Therefore option d is correct.