Final answer:
Jackson has low valence (option A) in the context of Expectancy Theory, as the bonus given to him does not align with what he values most at the moment. Low valence is experienced when the outcome of an action, such as a reward, does not align with an individual's desired goals or needs.
Step-by-step explanation:
Expectancy Theory suggests that an individual's motivation is influenced by their expected outcomes of certain actions and the value they place on those outcomes. In the case of Jackson feeling disappointed with his bonus, it can be said that he has low valence because the bonus does not fulfill his desired outcome, which was to take time off to study. Although Jackson was recognized for his work, the reward did not match his personal value or desire, hence the outcome has a low attractiveness to him.
In the scenario described with the businessman who refrains from asking for a raise, he is likely experiencing low expectancy, as he might doubt the effectiveness of his request or fear the possible negative consequences of asking. However, he seems to console himself by valuing the notion that hard work is its own reward, which indicates an internalization of motivation despite external circumstances.
According to research by Davis and Moore, higher levels of income, prestige, and power serving as rewards can motivate people to exert more effort. Jackson's situation also demonstrates the importance of aligning rewards with the individuals' expectations and intrinsic motivations, as tangible rewards are not always as effective as intangible rewards such as praise when it comes to sustaining intrinsic motivation.