Final answer:
Universities can disclose 'directory' information without written consent but generally need consent for non-directory personal information. Exemptions exist under laws like FERPA, allowing universities to disclose without consent in certain circumstances.
Step-by-step explanation:
To whom a university can disclose information without written consent depends largely on the context and laws such as the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) in the United States. Under FERPA, universities can disclose 'directory' information without prior consent, unless the student has placed a restriction on such information. Directory information may include a student's name, address, telephone number, date, and place of birth, honors and awards, and dates of attendance. However, for non-directory information, such as grades, course schedules, and disciplinary records, the university generally requires written consent from the student before disclosure, unless the disclosure meets one of FERPA's exemptions. These exemptions might include disclosures to other school officials with legitimate educational interests, to financial aid providers, to comply with a judicial order, or in case of health and safety emergencies.