Final answer:
During the Soviet period, progress was narrowly conceptualized as industrialization option (b), which was part of the state's objective to transform an agrarian society into an industrial one.
Step-by-step explanation:
During the Soviet period, "progress" was narrowly conceptualized as B. industrialization. This concept was prominent, particularly during the implementation of the Five-Year Plans under Joseph Stalin, who focused on rapidly developing the Soviet Union's industrial capacity.
The push for industrialization was tied to the establishment of a planned economy where the state dictated production quotas and oversaw the transformation from an agrarian society to an industrial one. Cities in the Soviet Union experienced significant population growth due to industrialization as people moved from rural areas to urban centers for work in factories.
One aspect of this transformation was collectivization, defined as the development of state-run farms for the entire agricultural sector (a. the development of state-run farms for the entire agricultural sector). Collectivization was intended to increase agricultural production and finance industrial development, but it faced strong resistance from peasants and resulted in significant hardships, including the Holodomor - the great famine in Ukraine.
Although modernization, which includes industrialization and technological advancements, is often perceived as a measure of progress, this perspective has been criticized for its ethnocentric bias, questioning whether such changes are universally positive. In the case of the Soviet Union, while industrialization led to increases in productivity and advancements in some areas, it also resulted in significant social disruption and human suffering.