Final answer:
Philosophers have arguments against the reasoning which justifies the horseshoe from truth-functionality, including the Open-Question Argument and Harman's theory on the connection between belief and evidence. The problem of evil also challenges arguments for the existence of a caring God.
Step-by-step explanation:
There are several arguments put forth by philosophers against the reasoning which justifies the horseshoe from truth-functionality.
One argument is the Open-Question Argument, introduced by G. E. Moore. This argument disputes the naturalistic fallacy and claims that non-natural properties, like 'right' and 'good,' cannot be derived from natural properties.
Another argument is Harman's theory that the belief must be appropriately connected to the evidence used to deduce it. If the belief is not connected to the reasoning used, it does not count as knowledge.