Final answer:
Sub-Saharan African rulers responded to Islam's arrival by integrating it, often combining Islamic practices with traditional beliefs. While some regions adopted Islam through trade and interaction, others, such as the Almoravids, enforced it more strictly. Islam's influence thus grew differentially across the continent.
Step-by-step explanation:
Sub-Saharan African rulers had varied responses to the arrival of Islam. Some embraced it and integrated Islam into their societies, often combining it with traditional beliefs in a process known as syncretism. Ruling elites, in particular, adopted Islam, attracted by the administrative advantages of Islamic scholars and the socio-economic benefits brought by Muslim traders and missionaries. This integration was especially notable in West African empires like Mali.
However, the reception of Islam was not uniformly positive. Revolts, like those in North Africa in 739 and 740, exhibited resistance to Islamic rule and criticized the amenity of some Muslim rulers. Despite such challenges, many sub-Saharan regions, such as the kingdom of Ghana and the Swahili coast, saw a gradual acceptance of Islam, which in places was adapted to fit local customs and traditions.
Trade and the activities of Berber missionaries played a significant role in spreading Islam across the region. Empires such as the Almoravids in the eleventh century adopted Islamic revivalism and enforced a stricter adherence to Islamic practices. By the fourteenth century, Islam was firmly established in empires such as Ancient Mali, largely through peaceful conversion due to interactions with Muslim traders rather than by force.