Final answer:
Near Eastern powers gathered intelligence through espionage and covert operations, including a special bureau for processing spy reports. Diplomatic alliances, intermarriage, tribute, and long-distance trade also played significant roles in intelligence gathering and maintaining relations.
Step-by-step explanation:
The methods used by Near Eastern kingdoms, city-states, and empires to gather intelligence about their neighbors, rivals, and vassals included a blend of diplomatic and covert approaches. Espionage and covert operations were frequently employed, where rulers like Hammurabi would use spies ranging from merchants to refugees to gather valuable information, and even had a dedicated intelligence bureau in the palace at Mari for processing this data. This intelligence played a crucial role in anticipating wars, understanding troop movements, and assessing enemy strength.
In addition to spying activities, these powers also engaged in diplomatic alliances and treaties, including arranging marriages between royal families and paying or receiving tribute to avoid conflicts, thereby fostering political and cultural ties. Long-distance trade also constituted a significant aspect of inter-state relations, with large empires actively maintaining trade routes for economic prosperity and mutual dependency.
While espionage carried the risks of espionage and betrayal, the strategies of intermarriage and tribute served as more peaceful means to acquire territory or maintain sovereignty without direct confrontation, as reflected in practices such as the Hittite king's attempted alliance through marriage with Egypt.