Final answer:
Sanctions are c. externalized social controls, utilized to reward or punish behavior in alignment with societal norms. They are categorized as formal or informal, with formal sanctions including legal repercussions, and informal sanctions arising through social interaction.
Step-by-step explanation:
Externalized social controls. Sanctions are a fundamental part of societal regulation, serving as a system to enforce rules and maintain order within communities. Both positive sanctions and negative sanctions are used as social controls to encourage or discourage certain behaviors in conformity with societal norms.
Sociologists further classify sanctions as either formal or informal. Formal sanctions might include legal penalties like fines or imprisonment for rule violations, whereas informal sanctions are more subtle and manifest through social interactions, such as disapproval or praise from peers. This multilayered approach to social control is necessary for societies to function smoothly, ensuring that individuals adhere to the shared values and norms essential for cohesive living.