Final answer:
Capable bureaucrats were recruited through various historical methods such as merit-based examinations, quotas based on population, familial connections, and 'shadow privileges.' The Sui Dynasty focused on merit and legalism, the Han Dynasty established more structured assessments, while the Tang Dynasty combined aristocratic ties with civil service exams. Modern systems, like those in the U.S., have transitioned from a spoils system to a merit-based system, especially following the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978.
Step-by-step explanation:
Throughout different eras, capable bureaucrats were recruited through various methods, reflecting the prevailing cultural and political norms of the time. During the Sui Dynasty, bureaucracy saw a return to meritocratic recruitment, moving away from the tradition where elite individuals would inherit government office. To maintain a system that served the public, officials were selected based on merit and their ability to follow strict legalist ideals.
In contrast, during the Han Dynasty, recruitment was partially meritocratic. Officials were nominally selected for their virtues and abilities, and sent to the capital for evaluation and appointment. This system became more structured over time, with certain quotas to fulfill based on population.
The Tang Dynasty's recruitment methods included familial ties and the 'shadow privilege,' but also incorporated the civil service examinations, which, though limited in challenging aristocratic power, provided a route for new talents to enter the government. The bureaucracy during this period replaced feudalism, where bureaucrats had specific, non-heritable, roles and served limited terms.
The Byzantine imperial bureaucracy was powerful and often marred by bribery and nepotism, despite the government's attempt to regulate this through a published list of maximum bribes.
In the United States, the evolution from a spoils system to a merit-based system began with the Pendleton Act of 1883. This transition was further cemented by the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978, which established agencies like the OPM and MSPB to manage the recruitment and oversight of civil servants, promoting the hiring of the most capable individuals while also seeking to keep them accountable to elected leadership.
Across these historical examples, the intention was to establish bureaucracies managed by competent officials appointed based on merit, whether through examinations or other assessments of talent and virtue.