Final answer:
Science in the Middle Ages was advanced through the contributions of Muslim scholars and the development of technologies and techniques in Europe. The exchange of knowledge across cultures greatly influenced European science, leading eventually to the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment.
Step-by-step explanation:
In the Middle Ages, particularly in Europe, science progressed significantly despite the period often being referred to as the 'Dark Ages.' This era witnessed the preservation and enhancement of knowledge especially due to the contributions of Muslim scholars. Figures like Al-Khwarizmi, the inventor of algebra; Al-Zahrawi, known as the father of surgery; and Ibn Al-Haytham, the physicist and father of optics, were instrumental in nurturing the fields of mathematics, medicine, and the natural sciences. Their work maintained classical Greek knowledge, previously lost in Europe, and also brought forth notable innovations which were crucial in leading to the Renaissance and later the Industrial Revolution.
Engineering also underwent significant advancements in medieval Europe, with improvements in construction and ship design, enabling exploration and the spread of ideas. The period after the 14th century, burdened by calamities like the Black Death, saw a decline in the Church's influence, which coincided with the emergence of revolutionary thinkers such as Copernicus and Galileo, whose scientific work began to challenge ecclesiastically ordained knowledge.
Cross-cultural exchanges further enriched European science, with the introduction of the numerical concepts such as the zero from India which greatly facilitated mathematical computations, and Perso-Arabic advances in trigonometry and astronomy that laid down the groundwork for the Scientific Revolution. The rise of literacy and universities significantly contributed to the dissemination of this integrated knowledge across Europe, ultimately forging a path towards the Enlightenment.