Final answer:
Labeling can lead to confirmation bias, where individuals seek out information that supports preexisting beliefs or stereotypes, and in-group/out-group dynamics, which can cause prejudice and discrimination based on group affiliations.
Step-by-step explanation:
Beyond the well-known phenomenon of the self-fulfilling prophecy, labeling can have various other effects on individuals. When labels are applied — whether in an educational setting, social context, or otherwise — they can lead to a host of outcomes. Apart from causing individuals to start behaving in a manner that is consistent with the label, which is characteristic of a self-fulfilling prophecy, labeling can also contribute to confirmation bias and in-group/out-group dynamics.
Confirmation bias occurs when individuals favor information that confirms their preexisting beliefs or stereotypes. For instance, if a student is labeled as a low achiever, educators and peers might unconsciously overlook signs of their potential or improvement, focusing instead on actions that confirm the low-achiever label. On a broader societal level, such bias by labeling may contribute to entrenched stereotypes, where people are treated based on a label rather than their actual abilities or actions.
In terms of in-group/out-group dynamics, labeling can strengthen this divide. Individuals might develop a preference for their own group (in-group bias) over others (out-group bias), leading to prejudice and discrimination against those not belonging to their own social or cultural cohorts. These effects can perpetuate social divisions and hinder the objective assessment of an individual's capabilities and character.