Final answer:
Psychologists generally view positive reinforcers as more effective than punishment for shaping behavior, with punishment being less effective and sometimes leading to adverse effects such as aggression or fear.
Step-by-step explanation:
Psychologists generally believe that positive reinforcers are more effective than punishment for shaping behavior. The direct answer to the student's question is (d) less effective than positive reinforcers in promoting desirable behavior.Punishment, which can be either positive or negative, aims to decrease a behavior. For example, positive punishment involves adding an unpleasant stimulus to reduce a behavior, whereas negative punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus to achieve the same goal.
However, reinforcement, which also comes in positive and negative forms, typically increases a desired behavior either by adding a positive stimulus (positive reinforcement) or removing a negative one (negative reinforcement). Studies and expert recommendations suggest that behaviors are more likely to become innate when they are reinforced rather than punished.Therefore, reinforcement strategies are viewed as more effective than punishment in the long term, as punishment can sometimes lead to negative outcomes such as increased aggression, avoidance, and learned fear.