Final answer:
Serf uprisings were caused by exploitation, political marginalization, and poor economic conditions. Leaders of these uprisings included provincial elites, landowners, and strongmen. The abolition of serfdom, such as in Russia, often failed to improve peasants' lives, contributing to further unrest.
Step-by-step explanation:
Serf uprisings were primarily the result of long-standing exploitation, oppression, and political marginalization. Often, the uprisings were sparked by provincial elites, big landowners, and strongmen that had been politically exploited and marginalized themselves. The dire economic circumstances created by these oppressive systems also gave birth to bands of bandits that initially raided for food and goods but later developed political ambitions. The emancipation of serfs, like the reform executed by Tsar Alexander II in Russia, while legally freeing the serfs, often did not translate into improved material conditions for the peasants, leading to further dissatisfaction and unrest.
The abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 was a significant event, but it did not immediately alleviate the peasants' hardships, which contributed to the uprisings. The revolution of 1905, where Tsar Nicholas II's troops opened fire on petitioners, clearly indicated to many that the tsar was no longer the protector of the people, heightening the revolutionary spirit among the peasantry. Additionally, in the context of European revolutions of 1848, various liberal movements, including those in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, France, and among the German states, were influenced by the discontent of serfs and poor urban workers, leading to uprisings against existing monarchies and ruling classes.