Final answer:
Belief-bias effect and confirmation bias are examples of top-down processing because they involve using pre-existing beliefs to interpret and recall new information. Both biases influence the perception and assessment of incoming data, demonstrating the top-down nature of these cognitive processes.
Step-by-step explanation:
Why is the belief-bias effect and confirmation bias considered examples of top-down processing? The answer to this question is b. They both involve processing information from the top down. Top-down processing occurs when prior knowledge or expectations guide our perception of incoming information. In the cases of the belief-bias effect and confirmation bias, our pre-existing beliefs influence how we interpret and recall new information.
The belief-bias effect causes individuals to accept conclusions that fit with their systems of belief, even if they are logically unsound. Similarly, confirmation bias manifests when individuals seek or interpret evidence in ways that are partial to existing beliefs or expectations. They essentially filter and process information through a lens shaped by their existing understanding, experiences, and beliefs. This is the very essence of top-down processing, as these biases are predicated on the utilization of pre-existing knowledge to navigate and make sense of new information.