Final Answer:
b.Contingency.
The perspective that suggests universal theories cannot be applied by organizations due to the uniqueness of each situation is Contingency.
Step-by-step explanation:
The Contingency perspective posits that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to organizational management because each situation is unique and influenced by a multitude of factors. Unlike classical theories that advocate for universal principles and standardized practices, contingency theory argues that the effectiveness of organizational strategies is contingent upon the specific circumstances at hand.
In contingency theory, the success of management decisions depends on adapting to the complexities of a given situation, such as the organization's structure, culture, and external environment. What works in one context may not necessarily apply in another. This perspective encourages organizations to be flexible and responsive to their surroundings, fostering a more pragmatic and adaptable approach to management.
Contingency theory emphasizes the importance of considering variables such as technology, human resources, and market conditions when making decisions. By acknowledging the uniqueness of each organizational situation, it advocates for a nuanced and context-specific approach, rejecting the notion that a one-size-fits-all management strategy can be universally applied.