Final answer:
Kai Erikson described the process by which institutions label individuals as deviants as 'deviance rituals', which is part of the broader labeling theory in sociology. The correct answer is option d. Deviance rituals.
Step-by-step explanation:
Kai Erikson refers to the formal process in which institutions officially transfer individuals into the role of deviant as deviance rituals. These rituals are a key part of the labeling theory, which examines how society ascribes the label of 'deviant' to individuals, thereby influencing their self-concept and possibly leading to further deviant behavior, a process known as secondary deviance.
In contrast to informal sanctions, which occur in face-to-face interactions, formal sanctions are officially recognized and enforced, often through legal codes within a society.
The recognition that deviance is not inherent in an act, but rather is the result of the application of rules and sanctions to an 'offender', is central to labeling theory. In a manner similar to the concept of the degradation ceremony discussed in sociology, where individuals entering an institution must relinquish aspects of their old identity to assume a new one, deviance rituals symbolically mark the individual as deviant within society.