Final answer:
Christians responded to Muslim conquests with a range of actions from tolerance and cohabitation to attempts at reconquest, such as the Third Crusade led by European monarchs like Richard the Lionheart. Over time, as Christian and Islamic powers evolved, crusading efforts waned and the focus of Christian leaders shifted toward nation-state building.
Step-by-step explanation:
Christian Response to Muslim Conquests
The capture and occupation of Christian lands by Muslim rulers elicited varied responses from Christian leaders throughout history. Initially, when Muslims from Africa conquered much of the Iberian Peninsula in 711, Christian leaders were forced into the northern mountains. The Muslim rule, which lasted until 1492, was relatively tolerant, permitting the practice of Christianity and other religions, though subjected to special taxes and certain restrictions. Encouraged by the Muslim rulers, many Christians returned and lived peaceably, known as Mozarabs.
In reaction to the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1187, and the increased threat to Christian lands in the Middle East, the European Christians launched the Third Crusade. Prominent leaders like Richard the Lionheart of England and others from the Holy Roman Empire and France attempted to retake Jerusalem but ultimately failed to regain control of the interior lands despite some maritime successes. A subsequent series of crusades through the 12th and 13th centuries saw diminishing returns for the Europeans, with the Muslim forces rebuffing these attempts.
The responses of Christians to Muslim rule also involved negotiation and cohabitation. European Catholics encountered diverse native Christian communities under Muslim rule, leading to conflicts over religious authority and cultural differences. By the late medieval period, as Christian kingdoms expanded in areas like the Baltic and Iberian Peninsula, and as Islamic powers like the Mamluks and Ottomans established themselves, crusades for Jerusalem became increasingly impractical, shifting the focus of Christian rulers to the consolidation and expansion of their nation-states.