Final answer:
The answer to the student's question is (d) dark money contributions. These are funds provided to influence elections through means that do not require the disclosure of donor identities, and are different from regulated soft money contributions.
Step-by-step explanation:
Political contributions that are given to an organization supporting a particular idea or cause but are not tracked are known as dark money contributions. This term refers to funds used to influence elections that come from donors whose identities are not disclosed. Dark money typically influences elections through advertising that aligns with a candidate's message without explicitly endorsing them.
After the McCain-Feingold bill attempted to rein in soft money by targeting donations given to political parties or causes and not directly to campaigns, other avenues for financing political messages emerged. Although soft money is regulated by the Federal Election Commission (FEC), dark money contributions remain unregulated and undisclosed, thus bypassing FEC rules.
The Supreme Court, in the Citizens United ruling, extended the protection of free speech to corporations and unions, allowing them to donate unlimited amounts to Political Action Committees without mandatory disclosure, potentially increasing the amount of dark money in politics.