Final answer:
Economists have altered the environmental debate by emphasizing resource allocation and introducing market-oriented policies such as tradeable permits and pollution charges. These methods are designed to provide flexible, cost-effective ways to achieve environmental goals. The correct option is a.
Step-by-step explanation:
Economists have helped modify the debate over the environment by focusing discussion on issues of resource allocation. Market-oriented environmental policies have been proposed by economists as more flexible alternatives to traditional command-and-control government limits on pollution emissions. These policies include tools such as tradeable permits for pollution and pollution charges. Marketable permits, for instance, are beneficial when a limited number of parties are interested in trading, like oil refineries or electrical utilities dealing with lead or sulfur dioxide permits, respectively. On the other hand, pollution charges might be preferable for widespread, small-scale polluters like car emissions or unrecycled soda cans.
Economists apply marginal analysis to determine the marginal costs and benefits of reducing pollution, thereby finding the most cost-effective way to achieve a given level of environmental quality. These market-oriented tools are not inherently about allowing more or less pollution, but about achieving the desired environmental outcomes at a lower societal cost due to their incentives and flexibility compared to traditional approaches.