Final answer:
Observations of solar neutrinos and seismic vibrations offer key insights to test and refine astronomers' models of the Sun, providing information about the core's processes and the Sun's internal structure.
Step-by-step explanation:
Astronomers test models of the Sun by using observations of solar neutrinos and seismic vibrations, known as helioseismology. Solar neutrinos are subatomic particles produced by nuclear reactions at the Sun's core. They pass almost unimpeded from the Sun to the Earth, providing direct information about the solar core's processes. The study of these neutrinos revealed that, contrary to initial expectations, only one-third of the predicted neutrinos were being detected on Earth because two-thirds are converted into different types. This showed neutrinos have mass, verifying and refining the standard solar model.
Helioseismology observes the Sun's seismic vibrations caused by sound waves moving through the Sun's interior. These waves provide data about the Sun's structure, composition, and dynamics, helping astronomers to map the interior of the Sun. Observations have shown that the Sun's convection zone extends about 30% of the way to the center and this technique even enables predicting solar storms by detecting active regions on the Sun's far side.