Final answer:
The correct answer is (D) Proto-oncogenes, antioncogenes. Proto-oncogenes can cause cancer with only one mutated copy, while antioncogenes require both copies to be mutated to promote cancer.
Step-by-step explanation:
Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that, when mutated, can become oncogenes, which then have the potential to cause cancer if just one copy is mutated. On the other hand, antioncogenes, more commonly known as tumor suppressor genes, require mutations in both copies in order to promote cancer. This is because cells typically have backup mechanisms and other controls in place; a single mutation will not lead to loss of function, as other duplicate or compensatory genes are often present to carry on the necessary function to prevent uncontrolled cell growth and division.
Oncogenes may be growth factors, kinases, GTPases, or transcription factors, which normally help regulate cell division. If these oncogenes are overexpressed or abnormally active due to mutations, they can lead to the malignant transformation of cells. Conversely, tumor suppressor genes, such as antioncogenes, function as the cellular 'brakes,' inhibiting cell division and promoting DNA repair and apoptosis. If both copies of a tumor suppressor gene are inactivated, the cell can proliferate unchecked, leading to potential tumor formation.