Final answer:
The Islamic Empire expanded through military conquests like the Battle of Yarmuk and peaceful agreements such as the Treaty of Tudmir, with a policy of religious tolerance.
Step-by-step explanation:
Expansion of the Islamic Empire
The historical expansion of the Islamic Empire was multifaceted, involving both conquest and peaceful integration into the Islamic state. Significant military encounters like the Battle of Yarmuk against the Byzantine Empire marked early expansions. However, documents such as the Treaty of Tudmir establish the predominance of peaceful agreements that allowed local populations to maintain their religious practices in exchange for taxes. Author Fred Donner emphasizes that such expansions, often termed "Arab-Muslim conquests," were not solely about military might, but also embraced policies of religious tolerance and tax arrangements.
Challenges before the First Crusade: The Byzantine Empire faced numerous challenges prior to the First Crusade, including military defeats and internal political strife, which weakened its position in the Mediterranean.
With the rise of the Ottoman Empire and other Islamic states such as the Seljuks and the Fatimids, the Islamic world became more diverse. The Ottomans, for example, established a system of land grants called timars to reward soldiers, which was not a universal practice in other Islamic states. The empire founded by Timur, in comparison to the Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan, shared geographical similarities and also a brief, meteoric history of conquests and expansions.
The fall of Constantinople is regarded by some historians as marking the end of the Middle Ages and the start of the early modern period due to its cultural and political significance. This event exemplified the changing dynamics within the region and the rise of the Ottoman Empire.