Final answer:
Congestive heart failure and portal hypertension due to cirrhosis of the liver are associated with hypervolemic hyponatremia, which is hyponatremia characterized by an excess of fluid in the body and can lead to serious health issues due to the swelling of cells, including red blood cells and neurons. The correct option is c.
Step-by-step explanation:
Congestive heart failure and/or portal hypertension (cirrhosis of the liver) is seen with hypervolemic hyponatremia. This type of hyponatremia is caused by an abnormally high level of fluid and blood within the body, often as a result of conditions that lead to water and sodium retention. Diseases like heart failure, liver cirrhosis, certain forms of kidney disease, hyperaldosteronism, and some treatments with glucocorticoid steroids can all lead to hypervolemia, necessitating treatment that targets the underlying cause to restore homeostasis.
Hyponatremia, characterized by a relative decrease in blood sodium, can lead to severe complications. It causes increased water entry into cells by osmosis due to the higher solute concentration inside the cells compared to the now-diluted extracellular fluid. This can result in cellular swelling, which can be particularly dangerous when it involves neurons in the brain or red blood cells, impairing their oxygen-carrying capacity.