Final answer:
The question seems to mix elements of symbolic logic and genetics, which are unrelated fields. In logical terms, some standard forms such as Modus Ponens or Modus Tollens appear to be referred to, while other parts of the question describe genetic configurations or equations in mathematics that cannot be resolved without additional context or clarification.
Step-by-step explanation:
The original question appears to involve logical operators and may relate to symbolic logic or mathematics. The notation '∼S ⊃ ∼F' is a logical implication which reads as "if not S, then not F." Additionally, the symbols 'MP,' 'DS,' 'MT,' and 'DA' seem to be abbreviations for logical argument forms such as Modus Ponens, Disjunctive Syllogism, Modus Tollens, and Denying the Antecedent, respectively. However, the question as provided is disjointed and includes symbolic representations that do not correspond to standard logical forms. For example, the lines containing 'F' with directional arrows and descriptions of lengths are not standard logical syntax. It seems there is confusion between different subjects, or the information has been scrambled.
In mathematics or symbolic logic, comparing equations or expressions:
- In case (a) 'If A × F = B × F, can we conclude A = B?', we cannot necessarily conclude that A equals B unless F is not zero, as both sides could be zero regardless of the values of A and B.
- In the occurrences related to symbolic genetics, like in (c) 'F1: AA-axial and Aa-terminal; F2: All AA-axial,' these denote configurations of genotypes at certain positions (axial or terminal) within a genetic setup (often related to Mendelian inheritance patterns).
Given the confusion, it's likely best to clarify the question with the student to provide a more accurate and helpful answer.