Final answer:
The statement that a certain environment offers complete information on possible action alternatives and their consequences is false; states must often decide with incomplete information. The precautionary principle applies when the effects of human actions are not well-understood, emphasizing caution in policy decisions. Distinguishing between command-and-control and market-oriented environmental policies depends on the specific context and issues addressed.
Step-by-step explanation:
The idea that a certain environment offers complete information on possible action alternatives and their consequences is false. In real-world situations, especially in the context of state actions and policies, complete information is rarely, if ever, available. States must often make decisions based on incomplete or imperfect information, taking into account potential risks and rewards.
When considering the consequences of human activities that are poorly understood, the precautionary principle suggests that we must assume a level of harm may exist and proceed with caution. This principle is crucial in environmental policy decisions where the effects on ecosystems or public health are uncertain.
In examining environmental policies, a command-and-control approach involves specific regulations and enforcement mechanisms, whereas a market-oriented policy leverages economic incentives to influence behavior. The correct choice between a command-and-control policy (like choice Q) and a market-oriented policy (like choice S) would depend on the specific environmental issue at hand and the socioeconomic context in which the policy is applied.