Final answer:
Spelling was adapted (option a) to represent speech, which came before written language. The relationship between speech and print is exemplified in the various spellings for the sound [d], and the standardization of language was historically influenced by the spread of print media.
Step-by-step explanation:
The spelling of the phoneme /ŋ/ highlights the relationship between speech and its written representation, showing that speech is primary while written language was adapted to capture the sounds of spoken language. This is to say, that spelling was created after speech had been established. Examples of how speech influences spelling can be seen in the various ways to write the sound [d], with and being the two primary spellings, while in past tense forms can represent the same phoneme, as in shoveled, where it is pronounced [d]. Simultaneously, historically speaking, the advent of more advanced printing technologies and more affordable paper led to an increase in written material, such as newspapers and magazines, necessitating the standardization of language.
Historical Influence on Language and Spelling
As these written forms of communication became more widespread, more individuals gained access to the standard or official language of their country, often at the expense of regional dialects. This movement towards standardization was pivotal in shaping the common spellings and usage of language that we are familiar with today. The concept of a universal standard language reflects not just a communicative necessity, but also a political and cultural consolidation of language around capital cities and the states' official languages.
Minor Spellings of [d]
It is interesting to note that while the majority of the time the sound [d] is spelled as or, there are important minor spellings like and. These minor spellings, which become pronounced [d], reflect the adaptability of spelling practices to the complexities of spoken language and its phonetic qualities.