Final answer:
Governments in the Middle East maintained order and exercised power through strong militaries, administrative structures, and welfare institutions.
Step-by-step explanation:
Governments in the Middle East maintained order and exercise power through various strategies and mechanisms. One significant approach was the establishment of strong military forces to enforce law and order and suppress rebellion. For example, the Mamluk rulers punished rebels severely and displayed their heads on gates as a deterrent. Additionally, governments in the Middle East implemented administrative structures to manage their territories, collect taxes, and maintain social control. Caliphs like Umar developed state bureaucracies, minted coins, and established welfare institutions to support the poor and needy.