Final answer:
The stochastic effects of radiation exposure include radiation-induced malignancy and leukemia, as they occur in a probabilistic manner. Erythema, however, is not a stochastic effect but a deterministic one. Radiation risks, based on studies from historical nuclear events, suggest that there is an increase in cancer risk, including leukemia and thyroid cancer, even at low doses over time.
Step-by-step explanation:
The examples of stochastic or probabilistic effects of radiation exposure include radiation-induced malignancy and leukemia. Stochastic effects refer to the random, probabilistic nature of the damage caused by radiation, where the probability of an effect occurring rather than its severity is dependent on the dose. Cancer and genetic defects are both long-term effects of radiation that occur due to interference with cell reproduction. The risk of illness such as cancer, including leukemia, is elevated by exposure to radiation and continues to be a concern for a lifetime. Studies such as those of Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors, radium dial painters, and Chernobyl victims provide evidence for the increased risk of thyroid cancer and leukemia due to radiation exposure.
Erythema (skin reddening) is a deterministic effect of radiation (directly related to the dose received, not probabilistic).
Regarding genetic defects, while the risk is relatively low, it is challenging to detect due to a low increase over the normal incidence rate. However, it's crucial to understand that any radiation exposure carries a risk that could contribute cumulatively over a person's lifetime.