Final answer:
The correct answer is 'd. all of the above', as this option represents various forms of exploitative competition where species indirectly compete for limited resources, consistent with the competitive exclusion principle.
Step-by-step explanation:
Exploitative competition occurs when species compete indirectly by consuming scarce resources. To illustrate exploitative competition:
- a. The seeds of two plants land near each other and one grows larger than the other.
- b. Two types of fish eat the same kind of food, and one is better able to gather food than the other.
- c. Male lions compete for the right to mate with females, with only one possible winner.
- d. all of the above
Among the provided options, the correct answer is d. all of the above, because each scenario represents a different aspect of exploitative competition, from resource competition among plants to behavioral competition among animals. This type of competition can lead to one species outcompeting another, which is related to the competitive exclusion principle, a concept stating that two species competing for the exact same resources cannot coexist at constant population values. If one species has even the slightest advantage over another, the one with the advantage will dominate in the long term.