Final answer:
The correct answer is option b.The extension of the Crusading ideal was a powerful force in the Middle Ages but declined due to the waning influence of the popes and the rise of nation-states. The Crusades, while initially driven by religious motives, increasingly served political and economic goals and lost their appeal as papal power diminished.
Step-by-step explanation:
As late as the Middle Ages, this extension of the Crusading ideal to areas outside the Holy Land was a powerful force when directed against a specific opponent. The context of this statement can be traced back to the various Crusades launched in the 13th century and earlier, which were driven by religious zeal and aimed at reclaiming or protecting Christian territories, but these often veered from their proclaimed goals. After the initial fervor and the establishment of crusader states, the crusading movement began to decline due to various reasons, including the rise of nation-states and diminished papal power.
One of the critical factors that contributed to the decline of crusading enthusiasm in the later Middle Ages was a) the decline of the power and influence of the popes. As the power of the popes waned and royal power revived, the Crusades, initially supported by influential and reformative popes, started to appear more concerned with personal power and prestige. This, coupled with events such as the dissolution of the Knights Templar—a popular crusading order—largely to appease the French king, greatly undermined the appeal and legitimacy of the crusading ideal.
The Crusading Movement evidently had significant impacts on the medieval world, influencing trade, political structures, and cultural exchanges. However, by the end of the Middle Ages, Europe had undergone substantial changes, and territorial and political motives had largely replaced the idea of Crusades for the sake of religion.